Race And Crime In The United States Criminology Essay

Race And Crime In The United States Criminology Essay The relationship between race and crime in the United States has been a topic of public controversy and scholarly debate for more than a century.[1] Since the 1980s, the debate has centered around the causes of and contributing factors to the disproportional representation of racial minorities (particularly African Americans, hence Black crime) at all stages of the criminal justice system, including arrests, prosecutions and incarcerations.[2] Many theories of causation have been proposed, the most prominent of which assume predominantly social and/or environmental causes, though notable exceptions argue for a reconsideration of the role of biology.[3] Sociologist Orlando Patterson has summarized the controversy as a dispute between liberal and conservative criminologists in which both parties focus on a single aspect of the causal net, with liberals focusing on factors external to the groups in question and conservatives focusing on internal cultural and behavioral factors.[4] History Further information: Anthropological criminology http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/150px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.17/common/images/magnify-clip.png W. E. B. Du Bois, one of the pioneers in the study of race and crime in the United States. The relationship between race and crime has been an area of study for criminologists since the emergence of anthropological criminology in the late 19th century.[5] Cesare Lombroso, founder of the Italian school of criminology, argued that criminal behavior was the product of biological factors, including race. This biological perspective was criticized by early 20th century scholars, including Frances Kellor, Johan Thorsten Sellin and William Du Bois, who argued that other circumstances, such as social and economic conditions, were the central factors which led to criminal behavior, regardless of race. Du Bois traced the causes of the disproportional representation of Blacks in the criminal justice system back to the improperly handled emancipation of Black slaves in general and the convict leasing program in particular. In 1901, he wrote: There are no reliable statistics to which one can safely appeal to measure exactly the growth of crime among the emancipated slaves. About seventy per cent of all prisoners in the South are black; this, however, is in part explained by the fact that accused Negroes are still easily convicted and get long sentences, while whites still continue to escape the penalty of many crimes even among themselves. And yet allowing for all this, there can be no reasonable doubt but that there has arisen in the South since the [civil] war a class of black criminals, loafers, and neer-do-wells who are a menace to their fellows, both black and white.[6] The debate that ensued remained largely academic until the late 20th century, when the relationship between race and crime became a recognized field of specialized study in criminology. As Helen T. Greene and Shaun L. Gabbidon, professor of criminal justice at Pennsylvania State University, note in their recently published Encyclopedia of Race and Crime (2009), many criminology and criminal justice programs now either require or offer elective courses on the topic of the relationship between race and crime.[7] Crime rate statistics Murder and non-negligent homicide There were 14,180 victims and 16,277 perpetrators of murder and non-negligent homicide reported by law enforcement agencies to the FBI in 2008.[25] The following table presents the racial demographics of murder in the United States for 2008 (with other including Asian American, Native American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander American):[26] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Offendersà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Black victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Other victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Unknown victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 32.8% 48.2% 83.3% 7.6% 30.0% 37.0% Black 36.5% 47.8% 13.8% 90.0% 16.7% 29.0% Other 1.7% 2.3% 1.2% 0.3% 52.0% 3.0% Unknown 29.0% 1.7% 1.6% 2.1% 1.2% 31.0% African Americans, constituting approximately 12% of the general population, were significantly overrepresented in the total arrests made. African Americans were also significantly overrepresented in victimization, representing 47% of all murder victims. White Americans and individuals of Other race were significantly underrepresented in cases of murder and non-negligible homicide in 2008. Murder in White American and African American populations were overwhelmingly intraracial, with 83% of all White victims and 90% of all Black victims having been murdered by individuals of the same race. The same was true, though to a lesser degree, for individuals of Other race, with 52% having been murdered by individuals also of Other race. [edit] Non-lethal violent crime Law enforcement agencies made 2,487 arrests for forcible rape, 27,476 arrests for robbery and 42,779 arrests for aggravated assault in 2008.[27] The following table presents the racial demographics of these non-lethal violent crimes in the United States for 2008: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Totalà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Rapeà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Robberyà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Aggravated assaultà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 58.3% 65.2% 41.7% 63.3% Black 39.4% 32.2% 56.7% 34.2% Native 1.2% 1.2% 0.7% 1.4% Asian/Pacific Islander 1.1% 1.4% 0.9% 1.2% White Americans were arrested more than any other race for non-lethal violent crimes in 2008, making up 58% of all arrests. White Americans, constituted approximately 79% of the total population. This survey does not make a distinction between non hispanic whites and hispanic whites. Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans, constituted approximately 4% of the total population made up only 1% of total arrests. African Americans contituted approximately 12% of the population, and made up 39% of all arrests for non-lethal violent crimes in 2008. The following table presents the racial and ethnic demographics of non-lethal violent crime victimization per 1000 persons age 12 or older in 2008 (with other including Asian American, Native American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander American):[28] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Totalà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Rapeà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Robberyà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Aggravated assaultà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Simple assaultà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 18.1 0.6 1.6 3.0 12.8 Black 25.9 1.9 5.5 5.3 13.3 Hispanic 16.4 0.6 3.4 3.5 8.9 Other 15.2 0.9 3.0 2.8 8.5 Multi 51.6 1.9 6.8 6.8 36.1 Multiracial Americans reported being victimized by non-lethal violent crime at rates 2 to 3 times higher than White Americans, African Americans, and individuals of Other race. Hispanic Americans reported being victimized by non-lethal violent crime at rates lower than that of non-Hispanic White Americans and African Americans. With the exception of simple assault, African Americans reported being victimized by non-lethal violent crime at rates significantly higher than those of White Americans, Hispanic Americans, and individuals of Other race. [edit] Property crime Law enforcement agencies made 235,407 arrests for burglary, 979,145 arrests for larceny/theft, 74,881 arrests for motor vehicle theft and 10,734 arrests for arson in 2008.[27] The following table presents the racial demographics of these property crimes in the United States for 2008: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Totalà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Burglaryà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Larceny-theftà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Motor vehicle theftà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Arsonà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 67.4% 66.8% 68.1% 59.7% 78.8% Black 30.1% 31.4% 29.3% 38.1% 21.7% Native 1.2% 0.9% 1.3% 1.1% 1.2% Asian/Pacific Islander 1.3% 0.9% 1.4% 1.2% 1.2% White Americans (including hispanics and non hispanics) were arrested more than any other race for property crimes in 2008, making up 67% of all arrests. With the exception of arson, White Americans were significantly underrepresented in all property crimes, as were Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans. African Americans were significantly overrepresented in all forms of property crime, making up 30% of all arrests. [edit] Racially motivated hate crime There were 3,870 incidents of racially motivated hate crime reported in 2007, with 4,724 individual offenses, 4,956 victims and 3,707 known offenders.[29] The following table presents the racial demographics of these hates crimes in the United States for 2007:[30] à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Offendersà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Victimsà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Anti-Whiteà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Anti-Blackà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Anti-Nativeà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Anti-Asian/Pac. Isl.à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Anti-Multià ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 45.9% 18.3% 18.5% 54.1% 58.6% 41.5% 36.6% Black 10.6% 69.2% 45.2% 2.4% 4.0% 8.2% 2.1% Native 1.5% 1.1% 2.5% 0.6% 9.3% 0.5% 1.4% Asian/Pacific Islander 0.4% 4.7% 0.7% 0.3% 0.0% 1.4% 0.0% Multi 2.5% 6.1% 2.4% 2.0% 0.0% 5.0% 6.7% Unknown race/Other 6.7% 0.5% 5.4% 7.1% 5.3% 6.0% 6.3% Unknown offender 32.7% 25.2% 33.4% 22.7% 37.4% 46.8% White Americans were identified as having committed the most racially motivated hate crimes in 2007, making up nearly 46% of all reported offenders. Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans were identified as having committed the least racially motivated hate crimes, making up less than 1% of all reported offenders. African Americans reported being victimized by racially motivated hate crime more frequently than any other race, making up 69% of all victims. [edit] White-collar crime Law enforcement agencies made 68,586 arrests for forgery and counterfeiting, 173,567 arrests for fraud and 16,314 arrests for embezzlement in 2008.[27] The following table presents the racial demographics of these white-collar crimes in the United States for 2008: à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Totalà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Forgery-counterfeitingà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Fraudà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" Embezzlementà ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" White 67.4% 67.7% 67.5% 64.5% Black 30.9% 30.7% 30.8% 33.4% Native 0.7% 0.5% 0.8% 0.6% Asian/Pacific Islander 0.9% 1.1% 0.8% 1.5% White Americans (including hispanics and non hispanics) were arrested more than any other race for these white-collar crimes in 2008, making up 67% of all arrests. White Americans, constituting approximately 79% of the total population, were significantly underrepresented in the total arrests made, as were Asian Americans and Pacific Islander Americans. African Americans were significantly overrepresented in forgery/counterfeiting, fraud and embezzlement, making up nearly 31% of all arrests.

Rebellion of 1837

Dannicah S. Blk 2. 3 anarchy of 1837 After learning ab show up the rising of 1837 and constantly taking notes, I established the ascent was not successful in overturning the judicature provided it did unite two pep pill and scorn Canada together. This was able to wages away any differences of the two cultures, slope and French. The blow did not happen nowadays as int wipeouted though. In event it god the giving medication to get back at the reformers and concentrate more(prenominal) on their penalisation such as transportation, hanging, flogging and deaths for the rebels, rather of working on fixing the colony.You lot tell that Canada had a serious political problem that was in desperate neediness to be improved. When the Chateau Clique and the reformers squared bump off against each other, the British did nothing to assuagement tension. They appointed James Craig, an anti-French as regulator just to arrest those who criticized the government and brought soldi ers to appal the French . The French Canadians disapproved of the British democracy and represent it very(prenominal) difficult to accept. There were many reasons why many French Canadians resented the government.Three authorised ones were because of how discriminative economic aloney and politically the government was of their language and culture, how they were given unequal taxation, and for their inadequacy in power over the government. Although, this all happened in demean Canada. The rebellion in Upper Canada was to bring an American ardour democracy because they, as puff up as the people in Lower Canada, believed that their government were discriminative against the French. The reason why I believe the rebellion in some(prenominal) Lower and Upper Canada was unsuccessful because they did not have any reasonable impact on any British colonies presently.To write down with, the anarchy in Upper Canada fai take miserably because of their lack of military experience. M any rebellions were killed during c ontend and several were arrested. Some even fled to America, they were no match for the British. This rebellion would have been more successful if the Catholic Church participated but church draws advised parishioners to pose loyal to the British. The rebellion in Lower Canada ended quickly. The rebellion in Upper Canada also did not turn out so good as well since the British military overpowered them.Even though Mackenzie, leader of the Upper Canada rebellion, took time to train his rebels and plan, the full-length event all just led to deaths and arrest of many patriots. Mackenzie also get away to America where he gained supporters there. In the end the British government continued to harness of Canada where they focused on discussing major penalty for the rebels. In my opinion, the leaders who led the rebellion of both Upper and Lower Canada were very similar. They could motivate emotions with words but they had no idea how to organize th eir supporters into affective forces.Even tually, Britainà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ways of administrating the colonies would have to change. John Lambton, the Earl of Durham, a reformer politician, realized the whole cause of the rebellion was the conflict between the incline and French. He then proposed that Upper and Lower Canada should be unite. In conclusion, the whole Rebellion was not successful as intend since the impact did not happen immediately but when Lower and Upper Canada was united it developed a new country. However, both leaders of the Rebellion returned to Canada eventually and were considered heroes by some and other as troublemakers. '

Causes of Suicide Among College Students

Suicide means an individual intentionally to adopt various means to end his life. It has been the second leading cause of death among college students (Caruso, n. d. ). The problem is getting serious in developing country such as Hong Kong and the ways to suicide had transformed to a mass suicide attempt on December 21, 2009 (Mak, 2011). These rising issues are telling us that suicide had becoming one of the most crucial matter that need to be resolve before it affect our future leader. So, we will review based on the past research for the alcohol and family relationship factors that contribute to suicide among college students. One of the factors that contribute to suicide among college student is alcohol consuming. Several past researches have been found to support this factor. An early study by Lamis, Ellis, Chumney and Dula (2009) claimed that many college students are experiencing heavy alcohol consumption and alcohol use are correlated with suicidal behaviour. This study is to check different levels of risk for alcohol-related problems and their relation to reasons for living among college students (Lamis et al. , 2009). 287 participants were recruited and divided into three alcohol groups, that are low-risk, moderate-risk and high-risk group (Lamis et al. , 2009). The hypothesis was made that participants in the high-risk group will report fewest reasons for living (Lamis et al. , 2009). RFL self-report measure was used to check how important a reason would be for living on participants. Besides that, AUDIT test also used to identify individuals whose experiencing alcohol-related problems (Lamis et al. , 2009). As the result, the high-risk group had fewer moral objections to dying by suicide compared to the low-risk group (Lamis et al. , 2009). From the experiment, we can see that obsessive alcohol use may lower student moral objections to suicide (Lamis et al. , 2009). Another experiment conducted by Lamis, Malone, Langhinrichsen-Rohling and Ellis (2009) stated that alcohol consuming will increase the risk for engaging in suicidal behaviours. This factor is strengthen when Powell and colleagues (2001), as cited in Lamis et al. 2009) found out that high alcohol drinking quantity will creates a greater likelihood of a serious suicide attempt. 318 participants were recruited and few measuring scale was used to predict the result for this experiment. The result tells that depression is predictor of alcohol use in young adults. Besides that, alcohol use are negatively correlated with body protection and the results suggests that individuals who are potentially involve in high-risk behaviours, such as suicide are usually from the one who have less tendency to protect themselves (Lamis et al. , 2010). Reference http://www.suicide.org/college-student-suicide.html

Changing Views And The Changing Blues - 1657 Words

Emily Meyers Taylor, Cameron- 4th Hour Honors American Literature 9 January 2015 The Changing Views and The Changing Blues Mark Twain himself had this to say about his novel: Huckleberry Finn is a book of mine about a boy with a sound heart and a deformed conscience that come into conflict...and conscience suffers defeat.† In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, his view of society starts out as naà ¯ve and childish, but as he experiences life on the Mississippi, he grows into a man with a realistic standpoint of what the world really was. He develops his views through other characters he meets meandering the mystical waters of the River. Along with major changes in Huck’s standings, Twain uses social commentary to attack the formalities of the people and environment he lived in harmony with in a subtle, sophisticated manner. Throughout Huckleberry s adventures, he is put into numerous situations where he must look within himself and use his own judgment to make fundamental decisions that will affect the morals of which Huckleberry will carry with him throughout his life. The two most prevalent changes in his viewpoint are that of religion and hypocrisy. In the novel, Huck struggles with taking and harboring Jim, which was considered illegal, and the things he had been taught about God and religion. The religious irony, or hypocrisy, comes more easily to view, while the racism is more of an underlying under the surface type of message. The only bad thing about having twoShow MoreRelatedFamily vs. Family1526 Words   |  7 PagesBetween the two short stories, â€Å"Sonny’s Blues† by James Baldwin and â€Å"Everyday Use† by Alice Walker, they reveal similarities and differences. Both stories are similar in the importance of family ties and the way they view family, but differ in siblin g relations. 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